wachsende öffentliche Interesse und Bewusstsein sowie strukturelle Anreize

Fahrzeuge führte. ^[3] [4] Es wird erwartet , dass das wachsende öffentliche Interesse und Bewusstsein sowie strukturelle Anreize, wie sie in die grüne Erholung von der COVID-19-Pandemie eingebaut werden , den Markt für Elektrofahrzeuge stark ankurbeln werden. Während der COVID-19- Pandemie haben Lockdowns die Menge an Treibhausgasen von Benzin- oder Dieselfahrzeugen reduziert. ^[5] Die Internationale Energieagentursagte im Jahr 2021, dass die Regierungen mehr tun sollten, um die Klimaziele zu erreichen , einschließlich der Politik für schwere Elektrofahrzeuge.^[6][7] Electric vehicle sales may increase from 2% of global share in 2016 to 30% by 2030.^[8][9][10] As of July 2022 global EV market size was $280 billion and it is expected to grow to $1 trillion by 2026.^[11] Much of this growth is expected in markets like North America, Europe and China;^[9] a 2020 literature review suggested that growth in use of electric 4-wheeled vehicles appears economically unlikely in developing economies, but that electric 2-wheeler growth is likely.^[12] There are more 2 and 3 wheel EVs than any other type.^[13]

Geschichte [ Bearbeiten ]

Hauptartikel: Geschichte des Elektrofahrzeugs

Die elektrische Antriebskraft begann 1827, als der ungarische Priester Ányos Jedlik den ersten groben, aber brauchbaren Elektromotor baute, der einen Stator, einen Rotor und einen Kommutator verwendete; und im nächsten Jahr benutzte er es, um ein kleines Auto anzutreiben. ^[14] Im Jahr 1835 baute Professor Sibrandus Stratingh von der Universität Groningen in den Niederlanden ein kleines Elektroauto, und irgendwann zwischen 1832 und 1839 erfand Robert Anderson aus Schottland die erste einfache elektrische Kutsche, die nicht wiederaufladbar war primäre Zellen . ^[15] Amerikanischer Schmied und Erfinder Thomas Davenportbaute 1835 eine elektrische Spielzeuglokomotive, die von einem primitiven Elektromotor angetrieben wurde. 1838 baute ein Schotte namens Robert Davidson eine elektrische Lokomotive, die eine Geschwindigkeit von 6 km/h erreichte. In England wurde 1840 ein Patent für die Verwendung von Schienen als Leiter für elektrischen Strom erteilt, und ähnliche amerikanische Patente wurden 1847 an Lilley und Colten erteilt. ^[16]

Die ersten massenproduzierten Elektrofahrzeuge erschienen Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts in Amerika. 1902 stieg die Studebaker Automobile Company in das Automobilgeschäft mit Elektrofahrzeugen ein, obwohl sie 1904 auch in den Markt für Benzinfahrzeuge eintrat. Mit dem Aufkommen billiger Fließbandautos durch die Ford Motor Company ging die Popularität von Elektroautos jedoch deutlich zurück. ^[17]

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Anorexia nervosa

Anorexia nervosa

The lifetime prevalence of anorexia nervosa in women is 0.9%, with 19 years as the average age of onset.^{[citation needed]} Although relatively uncommon, eating disorders can negatively affect menstruation, fertility, and maternal and fetal well-being. Among infertile women with amenorrhea or oligomenorrhea due to eating disorders, 58% had menstrual irregularities, according to preliminary research in 1990.^{[121][citation needed]}

Nutrition literacy

The findings of the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL), conducted by the US Department of Education, provide a basis upon which to frame the nutrition literacy problem in the U.S. NAAL introduced the first-ever measure of "the degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions" – an objective of Healthy People 2010^[122] and of which nutrition literacy might be considered an important subset. On a scale of below basic, basic, intermediate and proficient, NAAL found 13 percent of adult Americans have proficient health literacy, 44% have intermediate literacy, 29 percent have basic literacy and 14 percent have below basic health literacy. The study found that health literacy increases with education and people living below the level of poverty have lower health literacy than those above it.

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Infant and young child feeding

Infant and young child feeding

Improvement of breast feeding practices, like early initiation and exclusive breast feeding for the first two years of life, could save the lives of 1.5 million children annually.^[117] Nutrition interventions targeted at infants aged 0–5 months first encourages early initiation of breastfeeding.^[3] Though the relationship between early initiation of breast feeding and improved health outcomes has not been formally established, a recent study in Ghana suggests a causal relationship between early initiation and reduced infection-caused neo-natal deaths.^[3] Also, experts promote exclusive breastfeeding, rather than using formula, which has shown to promote optimal growth, development, and health of infants.^[118] Exclusive breastfeeding often indicates nutritional status because infants that consume breast milk are more likely to receive all adequate nourishment and nutrients that will aid their developing body and immune system. This leaves children less likely to contract diarrheal diseases and respiratory infections.^[2]

Besides the quality and frequency of breastfeeding, the nutritional status of mothers affects infant health. When mothers do not receive proper nutrition, it threatens the wellness and potential of their children.^[2] Well-nourished women are less likely to experience risks of birth and are more likely to deliver children who will develop well physically and mentally.^[2] Maternal undernutrition increases the chances of low-birth weight, which can increase the risk of infections and asphyxia in fetuses, increasing the probability of neonatal deaths.^[119] Growth failure during intrauterine conditions, associated with improper mother nutrition, can contribute to lifelong health complications.^[3] Approximately 13 million children are born with intrauterine growth restriction annually.^[120]

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Market share

Market share

The popularity of online shopping continues to erode sales of conventional retailers. For example, Best Buy, the largest retailer of electronics in the U.S. in August 2014 reported its tenth consecutive quarterly dip in sales, citing an increasing shift by consumers to online shopping.^[50] Amazon.com has the largest market share in the United States. As of May 2018, a survey found two-thirds of Americans had bought something from Amazon (92% of those who had bought anything online), with 40% of online shoppers buying something from Amazon at least once a month. The survey found shopping began at amazon.com 44% of the time, compared to a general search engine at 33%. It estimated 75 million Americans subscribe to Amazon Prime and 35 million more use someone else's account.^[51]

There were 242 million people shopping online in China in 2012.^[52] For developing countries and low-income households in developed countries, adoption of e-commerce in place of or in addition to conventional methods is limited by a lack of affordable Internet access.

Advantages

Convenience

Online stores are usually available 24 hours a day, and many consumers in Western countries have Internet access both at work and at home. Other establishments such as Internet cafes, community centers and schools provide internet access as well. In contrast, visiting a conventional retail store requires travel or commuting and costs such as gas, parking, or bus tickets, and must usually take place during business hours. Delivery was always a problem which affected the convenience of online shopping. Additionally, the online shopping industry has not only involved the concept of providing convenience for customers but also improved perceptions of social inclusion.^[53] However to overcome this many retailers including online retailers in Taiwan brought in a store pick up service. This now meant that customers could purchase goods online and pick them up at a nearby convenience store, making online shopping more advantageous to customers.^[54] In the event of a problem with the item (e.g., the product was not what the consumer ordered or the product was not satisfactory), consumers are concerned with the ease of returning an item in exchange for the correct product or a refund. Consumers may need to contact the retailer, visit the post office and pay return shipping, and then wait for a replacement or refund. Some online companies have more generous return policies to compensate for the traditional advantage of physical stores. For example, the online shoe retailer Zappos.com includes labels for free return shipping, and does not charge a restocking fee, even for returns which are not the result of merchant error. (Note: In the United Kingdom, online shops are prohibited from charging a restocking fee if the consumer cancels their order in accordance with the Consumer Protection (Distance Selling) Act 2000).^[55] A 2018 survey in the United States found 26% of online shoppers said they never return items, and another 65% said they rarely do so.^[56] Merchants may benefit from online shopping due to low sales inventory pressure, low operating costs, and the scale of operation is not limited by the site.

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User interface

User interface

An automated online assistant, with potential to enhance user interface on shopping sites.

The most important factors determining whether customers return to a website are ease of use and the presence of user-friendly features.^[49] Usability testing is important for finding problems and improvements in a web site. Methods for evaluating usability include heuristic evaluation, cognitive walkthrough, and user testing. Each technique has its own characteristics and emphasizes different aspects of the user experience.^[49]

Market share

The popularity of online shopping continues to erode sales of conventional retailers. For example, Best Buy, the largest retailer of electronics in the U.S. in August 2014 reported its tenth consecutive quarterly dip in sales, citing an increasing shift by consumers to online shopping.^[50] Amazon.com has the largest market share in the United States. As of May 2018, a survey found two-thirds of Americans had bought something from Amazon (92% of those who had bought anything online), with 40% of online shoppers buying something from Amazon at least once a month. The survey found shopping began at amazon.com 44% of the time, compared to a general search engine at 33%. It estimated 75 million Americans subscribe to Amazon Prime and 35 million more use someone else's account.^[51]

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Elektrisches Fahrzeug

In diesem Artikel geht es um alle Arten von Elektrofahrzeugen. Für Elektroautos siehe Elektroauto .

Electric vehicles around the world (left to right, from top):

• Elektroauto , ein Nissan Leaf
• Elektrisches, solarbetriebenes Flugzeug , die Solar Impulse 2 , die die Welt umrundete
• Elektrische Straßenbahn , ULF-B der Wiener Linien in Wien, Österreich
• Batterieelektrischer Bus , ein VinBus in Vietnam
• E-Bike in Manhattan, New York
• Elektro-LKW , Klasse 8 , ein Tesla Semi in Rocklin,  Kalifornien

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Ein Elektrofahrzeug ( EV ) ^{[Anmerkung 1]} ist ein Fahrzeug , das einen oder mehrere Elektromotoren für den Antrieb verwendet . Es kann von einem Kollektorsystem mit Strom aus externen Quellen oder autonom von einer Batterie (manchmal aufgeladen durch Sonnenkollektoren oder durch Umwandlung von Kraftstoff in Strom mit Brennstoffzellen oder einem Generator ) betrieben werden. ^[1] Elektrofahrzeuge umfassen, sind aber nicht beschränkt auf Straßen- und Schienenfahrzeuge , Überwasser- und Unterwasserschiffe ,Elektroflugzeuge und elektrische Raumfahrzeuge . Für Straßenfahrzeuge bilden Elektrofahrzeuge zusammen mit anderen aufkommenden Automobiltechnologien wie autonomes Fahren, vernetzte Fahrzeuge und geteilte Mobilität eine zukünftige Mobilitätsvision namens Connected, Autonomous, Shared and Electric (CASE) Mobility. ^[2]

EVs entstanden erstmals im späten 19. Jahrhundert, als Elektrizität zu den bevorzugten Methoden für den Antrieb von Kraftfahrzeugen gehörte und ein Maß an Komfort und Benutzerfreundlichkeit bot, das von den Benzinautos der damaligen Zeit nicht erreicht werden konnte. Verbrennungsmotoren waren etwa 100 Jahre lang die vorherrschende Antriebsmethode für Autos und Lastwagen , aber elektrische Energie blieb in anderen Fahrzeugtypen wie Zügen und kleineren Fahrzeugen aller Art alltäglich.

Staatliche Anreize zur Steigerung der Akzeptanz wurden erstmals Ende der 2000er Jahre eingeführt, auch in den Vereinigten Staaten und der Europäischen Union , was in den 2010er Jahren zu einem wachsenden Markt für die Fahrzeuge führte. ^[3] [4] Es wird erwartet , dass das

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Infrastructure management

Infrastructure management[edit]

With the increase in number of electric vehicles, it is necessary to create an appropriate number of charging stations to supply the increasing demand,^[154] and a proper management system that coordinates the charging turn of each vehicle to avoid having some charging stations overloaded with vehicles and others empty.^[155]

Stabilization of the grid[edit]

Since EVs can be plugged into the electric grid when not in use, there is a potential for battery-powered vehicles to cut the demand for electricity by feeding electricity into the grid from their batteries during peak use periods (such as mid-afternoon air conditioning use) while doing most of their charging at night, when there is unused generating capacity.^[156][157] This vehicle-to-grid (V2G) connection has the potential to reduce the need for new power plants, as long as vehicle owners do not mind reducing the life of their batteries, by being drained by the power company during peak demand. Electric vehicle parking lots can provide demand response.^[158]

Furthermore, current electricity infrastructure may need to cope with increasing shares of variable-output power sources such as wind and solar. This variability could be addressed by adjusting the speed at which EV batteries are charged, or possibly even discharged.

Some concepts see battery exchanges and battery charging stations, much like gas/petrol stations today. These will require enormous storage and charging potentials, which could be manipulated to vary the rate of charging, and to output power during shortage periods, much as diesel generators are used for short periods to stabilize some national grids.^[159][160]

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Vitamin A plays an essential role

Vitamin A plays an essential role in developing the immune system in children, therefore, it is considered an essential micronutrient that can greatly affect health.^[2] However, because of the expense of testing for deficiencies, many developing nations have not been able to fully detect and address vitamin A deficiency, leaving vitamin A deficiency considered a silent hunger.^[2] According to estimates, subclinical vitamin A deficiency, characterized by low retinol levels, affects 190 million pre-school children and 19 million mothers worldwide.^[112]

The WHO estimates that 5.2 million of these children under five are affected by night blindness, which is considered clinical vitamin A deficiency.^[113] Severe vitamin A deficiency (VAD) for developing children can result in visual impairments, anemia and weakened immunity, and increase their risk of morbidity and mortality from infectious disease.^[114] This also presents a problem for women, with WHO estimating that 9.8 million women are affected by night blindness.^[115] Clinical vitamin A deficiency is particularly common among pregnant women, with prevalence rates as high as 9.8% in South-East Asia.^[112]

Estimates say that 28.5% of the global population is iodine deficient, representing 1.88 billion individuals.^[116] Although salt iodization programs have reduced the prevalence of iodine deficiency, this is still a public health concern in 32 nations. Moderate deficiencies are common in Europe and Africa, and over consumption is common in the Americas.^[90] Iodine-deficient diets can interfere with adequate thyroid hormone production, which is responsible for normal growth in the brain and nervous system. This ultimately leads to poor school performance and impaired intellectual capabilities.^[2]

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Vitamin and mineral malnutrition

Vitamin and mineral malnutrition

Vitamins and minerals are essential to the proper functioning and maintenance of the human body.^[105] There are 20 trace elements and minerals that are essential in small quantities to body function and overall human health.^[105]

Iron deficiency is the most common inadequate nutrient worldwide, affecting approximately 2 billion people.^[106] Globally, anemia affects 1.6 billion people, and represents a public health emergency in mothers and children under five.^[107] The World Health Organization estimates that there exists 469 million women of reproductive age and approximately 600 million preschool and school-age children worldwide who are anemic.^[108] Anemia, especially iron-deficient anemia, is a critical problem for cognitive developments in children, and its presence leads to maternal deaths and poor brain and motor development in children.^[2] The development of anemia affects mothers and children more because infants and children have higher iron requirements for growth.^[109] Health consequences for iron deficiency in young children include increased perinatal mortality, delayed mental and physical development, negative behavioral consequences, reduced auditory and visual function, and impaired physical performance.^[110] The harm caused by iron deficiency during child development cannot be reversed and result in reduced academic performance, poor physical work capacity, and decreased productivity in adulthood.^[3] Mothers are also very susceptible to iron-deficient anemia because women lose iron during menstruation, and rarely supplement it in their diet.^[3] Maternal iron deficiency anemia increases the chances of maternal mortality, contributing to at least 18% of maternal deaths in low and middle income countries.^[111]

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